以色列歷史/新國家面臨的挑戰
< 以色列歷史
以色列在 1949 年至 1967 年期間面臨許多問題。阿拉伯城鎮的種族清洗暫時擱置了以色列與巴勒斯坦之間的衝突，但來自憤怒的阿拉伯國家的貧困猶太難民造成了全新的種族問題，而深陷分化的政府也幾乎無法運作。
在 1940 年代，伊拉克、利比亞、埃及、敘利亞和葉門發生的針對猶太人的反猶太暴亂中，超過一千名猶太人喪生，這引發了猶太人從阿拉伯國家大規模外流的浪潮。 迴歸法賦予所有猶太人合法移民以色列並立即成為以色列公民的權利，如果他們選擇這樣做。唯一的例外是內政部長認為對國家公共衛生、福利或安全構成威脅的人。
迴歸法直到 1950 年才寫成，但在宣佈獨立後的幾個小時內，olim（新移民）蜂擁而至。頭六個月有 100,000 人，然後 1949 年超過 250,000 人。[1]
1941 年 6 月：逃離巴勒斯坦的耶路撒冷大穆夫提煽動了拉希德·阿里領導的親納粹政變。這引發了巴格達的騷亂和暴行。猶太人已經在伊拉克生活了 2700 年。在警察和軍隊的默許下，伊拉克武裝暴徒襲擊了 180 名猶太人，並造成近 1000 人受傷。1946-49 年發生了更多暴發。在 1948 年以色列建國後，猶太復國主義成為一項罪名。1950 年，伊拉克猶太人被允許在一年內離開該國，前提是他們放棄公民身份。1951 年，從伊拉克移民的猶太人的財產被凍結，對剩下的猶太人施加了經濟限制。
從 1949 年到 1951 年，猶太人從伊拉克被撤離，名為以斯拉行動和尼希米行動。另外 20,000 人透過伊朗偷渡。1952 年，伊拉克政府禁止猶太人移民。在被控在巴格達美國新聞處辦公室投擲炸彈的虛假指控下，猶太人被公開絞死。
1944 年，敘利亞從法國獨立後，新政府禁止猶太人移民巴勒斯坦。猶太學校的希伯來語教學受到嚴格限制。襲擊事件升級，針對猶太人企業的抵制行動也隨之而來。1947 年，在巴勒斯坦分治後，阿勒頗的阿拉伯暴徒摧毀了這個擁有 2500 年曆史的社群。數十名猶太人喪生。超過 200 個住宅、商店和猶太教堂被毀。數千名猶太人非法逃離敘利亞前往以色列。猶太人是唯一一個護照上標明宗教的少數民族。行動自由受到嚴格限制。試圖逃離的猶太人要麼面臨死刑，要麼面臨苦役監禁。猶太人不能擔任政府或銀行工作。猶太人不能獲得電話或駕照，也不能購買房產。猶太人銀行賬戶被凍結。大馬士革的猶太公墓被鋪成機場路。猶太學校被關閉並移交給了穆斯林。
據說在拉姆拉發生了強姦案。我可以原諒強姦，但我不能原諒其他我認為更糟糕的行為。當他們進入一個城鎮，強行從手指上取下戒指，從脖子上取下珠寶時，那是一件非常嚴重的事情……許多人對此有罪。—摩西·本托夫，記錄於 1948 年 7 月 4 日的內閣會議紀要中。
在全世界，從緬甸到美國，猶太人被外交官和摩薩德特工移民到以色列——通常作為經濟交易的一部分，價格昂貴。這些早期的移民運動沒有區分塞法迪和阿拉伯等民族，只關注每個國家猶太人口的政治和經濟狀況，並強調陷入困境的社群。例如，在摩洛哥，猶太機構發現了一個由於沙眼而全部失明的村莊。[2] 有些國家根本不想讓他們的猶太人離開。在這種情況下，摩薩德安排了秘密的走私行動，使用貨船、駱駝和商隊。然而，摩薩德也從猶太復國主義機構那裡提取了每位新olim的利潤，並習慣於將每艘船都裝滿到最大容量，並提前將olim帶進來。到 1952 年，它被解散，取而代之的是正式的特工處。[3]
來自歐洲，包括羅馬尼亞和匈牙利的人，完全沒有開拓精神。他們期待著奢華的生活，只會在城市裡生活。[他們] 不學習語言。... 敘利亞人、伊拉克人、伊朗人和的黎波里人：他們中的大多數會說希伯來語，因為他們屬於開拓性的猶太復國主義運動（尤其是伊拉克人和伊朗人）。他們的願望是住在土地上，在某些情況下甚至住在集體農場裡。—露絲·克利格，總理辦公室報告
對以色列新國家的移民人數上升到最大估計容量的四倍。遭受暴行的倖存者來到以色列港口，卻被卸到惡劣的營地，具有諷刺意味的是，他們用與納粹集中營相似的 DDT 噴霧進行除蝨處理。醫療援助不存在，地板上覆蓋著人類排洩物，食物份量很少——有時只有麵包、牛奶和一些橄欖——居民在營地裡被關押了幾個月。一旦移民離開營地，集體農場和其他農業體系也被申請者和受訓者壓垮。當營地於 1949 年關閉時，olim被分散到以色列各地為自己的食物工作。[4]
但以色列同樣沒有為從葉門的另一批olim做好準備，魔毯行動；一位醫生描述了 12,000 名飢餓的移民，其中許多人赤身裸體或半裸，擠在一個本應容納 500 人的“中轉站”，甚至沒有帳篷來保護他們免受惡劣天氣的侵襲。這不僅反映了aliyah系統化的緩慢進展，也反映了葉門的狀況，那裡的兒童死亡率估計為 80%，大多數人口一直生病，倖存下來的兒童很快就與其他猶太人結婚，以防止他們被蘇丹綁架並改信伊斯蘭教。[5] 雖然以色列並不比葉門立即好轉，但猶太復國主義機構很快開始討論對葉門人的未來進行投資，旨在改善識字率、婦女權利、健康和社會狀況。猶太機構的一份小冊子上寫著：“我們不能讓他們成為……我們社會的擦鞋匠。”[6]
即使在多年後，人們對魔毯行動結果的看法也各不相同。
有些葉門兒童能背誦整章聖經，而我，一個希伯來語老師，卻像他們不懂希伯來語一樣教他們，因為他們的口音與我不同。我教他們什麼？——貓坐在墊子上。我傷害了他們。今天，我覺得這是一場災難，不僅是對移民，而且是對整個社群都是一場災難。—拉比卡爾曼·卡哈納[7]
世界上從來沒有過如此規模的教育事業……為他們創造了一個完整的教育體系，從無到有，而且是在經濟困難時期，在國際鬥爭和對國家生存的軍事威脅之中。這就是它！—巴魯赫·本·耶胡達博士[8]
1948 年成立的政府包括來自猶太復國主義運動各個部分、宗教派別和反猶太復國主義者的代表。為了確保這種團結，世俗領導人不得不做出讓步，保證猶太教法律的某些方面將被納入新政府，例如：遵守安息日和飲食規則。
1949 年首次提出了憲法。左翼人士反對，理由是該檔案沒有宣佈該國的基礎是社會主義。宗教派別擔心，書面憲法將鞏固世俗猶太復國主義的價值觀。他們認為憲法沒有必要，因為《托拉》本質上就是憲法。
美國官員擔心以色列可能不是民主國家，因為許多猶太人來自蘇聯的一部分，並且這些猶太人中很大一部分與社會主義政黨和意識形態有關。美國決策者擔心以色列會成為蘇聯的盟友——尤其是那些一開始就對猶太復國主義持敵意的決策者。蘇聯是聯合國透過分割決議的關鍵。蘇聯也是繼美國之後第二個承認以色列的國家。
以色列政府推行了一些社會主義經濟政策：國有化主要機構——航空公司——電話公司——公用事業。但以色列致力於西方民主陣營，並拒絕了共產主義。結果，蘇聯隨後轉向以色列，在政治、經濟和軍事上支援以色列的敵人。
A. Before UN partition vote, Golda Meir was sent by Ben-Gurion to met with
King Abdullah
i. they agreed Jews would not object to Adbullah annexing the area
allocated for the Arab State
ii. Meir met Abdullah in Amman with the hope that Jordan would not
enter the impending war
iii. Abdullah told Meir he allied himself with the other Arab states
B. Jordan in Jerusalem
i. Jordan heavily subsidized by British government and its army
ii. Arab Legion was trained, supported and led by British officers
iii. this Arab force was the one that the Jews were not able to expel
during the War of Independence
iv. Transjordan was in control of a large amount of territory west of
the Jordan river AKA the West Bank and half of the city of
Jerusalem including the Old City
a. Abdullah made it clear that the Jews were not allowed access to
holy places like the Kotel
b. UN, Vatican, and other who had expressed concern as to the future
of Jerusalem and with it the freedom of all to worship there soon
did not keep interest
v. Abdullah's decision to annex parts of Palestine that he conquered
angered fellow Arabs
a. Abdullah ignored this and renamed the area the Hashemite Kingdom
of Jordan after his family the Hashemites
vi. Israel doubled its poplation through immigration as Jordan did the
same by unifying the territory on both sides of the Jordan River
C. Interesting to Note
i. on May 11, 1949 Israel was admitted as the 59th member on the UN
ii. Jordan's application was vetoed by the Soviet Union two years
earlier because the Russians believed Abdullah was a British puppet
A. declared on Dec. 9, 1945 by the Arab League Council
i. stated "Jewish products and manufactured goods shall be considered
undesirable to the Arab Countries."
ii. this is before Israel was declared a State and even before the UN
voted for partition
iii. Jewish was the term used as opposed to Zionist
B. The boycott had three categories
1. boycott prohibits direct trade between Israel and the Arab nations
2. companies doing business in Israel
3. blacklisting of firms that trade with other companies doing business
in Israel
a. Coca-Cola was sold in Israel so Arabs countries boycotted the
company
b. Pepsi stayed away from Israel and continued to do business in
Israel
C. Economics in Israel
i. at this time Israel did not have the resources to easily and quickly
absorb so many immigrants
ii. years later many immigrants who grew up in ma'abarot -camps of tin
shacks and tents- harbored resentment towards the government for
its failure to ease their transition
D. 1977 US Congress Prohibited US Companies From Cooperating With The Arab
Boycott
i. President Carter
ii. Carter mentioned that the boycott affected Jewish members of the
American society and that it was the antagonist to free trade
E. US Foreign Policy
i. Truman replaced by Eisenhower
a. after 1948 War, Truman began a modest foreign aid program for
Israel, Ike quickly reduced that amount
b. Ike used the aid to extract concessions from the Israelis
throughout his term
-for example, 1955 payments were suspended to force Israel to
stop work on a hydroelectric project on the Jordan river
c. Ike refused to sell weapons to Israel
d. when Israel formally moved the foreign ministry and other
government institutions to the capital, Jerusalem, Eisenhower
criticized the decision and refused to move the US Embassy from Tel
Aviv - where it still remains!! Petition
F. Eisenhower's New Middle East Policy Would Influence American
Decision-Makers For The Remainder Of The Century
a. Ike decided that the Middle East was vital to American security
interests because of the oil reserves
b. Ike also worried about the spread of Communism in Middle East
G. Building of Alliances in the Middle East
a. Baghdad Pact 1955 - pro-Western regimes in Turkey and Iraq
b. later that year Great Britain, Iran, and Pakistan joined creating
the Middle East Treaty Organization which later became the Central
Treaty Organization
c. US wanted Egypt to become part of the Alliance
-US prepared to offer Nasser arms and aid if his country joined
-British opposed to this because of Suez
d. Nasser actively opposed the alliance and began undermining it
e. US did not join the Baghdad Pact
f. Aswan Dam - 1955 Eisenhower offered to help Egypt build the Aswan
Dam
-Nasser felt the project would give outsiders too much influence
over his economy
-eventually Nasser decided to accept the offer in July 1956
-July 19 US formally withdrew its offer
g. a few days after Nasser learned of US withdrawal, Nasser nationalized
the Suez Canal
-France and Great Britain were furious
-US condemned Nasser but cautioned its allies against military
reaction
A. Egypt Closed the Suez Canal to Israeli Shipping After Signing the
Armistice Agreement
i. August 9, 1949 UN Mixed Armistice Commission upheld Israel's
complaint that Egypt was illegally blocking the canal
ii. September 1, 1967 the Security Council ordered Egypt to open the
canal to Israeli shipping
iii. Egypt refused to comply
B. Egypt "attacks" Israel
i. 1955 Nasser began to import weapons from the Soviet Bloc to build
his arsenal for a confrontation with Israel
ii. in the short-term Nasser used a different tactic announced on
August 31, 1955 "Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes, the
disciples of Pharaoh and the sons of Islam, and they will cleanse
the land of Palestine... There will be no peace on Israel's border
because we demand vengeance, and vengeance is Israel's death."
iii. Egypt sent fedayeeh - Arab terrorists - trained and equipped by
Egyptian Intelligence to engage in hostile action on the border
and infiltrate Israel to commit acts of sabotage and murder
iv. the fedayeen mostly operated from bases in Jordan so that Jordan
would feel the brunt of Israel's retaliation
v. these terrorist attacks violated the armistice agreement yet the UN
Security Council condemned Israel for its counter-attacks
vi. 1953 Israel had created a secret unit to retaliate against the
fedayeen
-it infiltrated their bases and struck both preemptively and
vengefully
-Unit 101, as it was called, was led by Ariel Sharon
vii. Egyptian blockade of Straits of Tiran - Israel's only supply route
with Asia
viii. Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal in July, 1956
ix. October 25, 1956 Egypt signed a tripartite agreement with Syria and
Jordan which put Nasser in command of the three armies
B. Canal Plans
i. British and French not happy with Nasser over situation
ii. the French had grown close to new Israeli government; politically,
militarily, and diplomatically
-French became Israel's primary source of arms for about a decade
and provided Israel key elements that let Israel develop a nuclear
capability
-British still allied with Jordan and not friendly with Israel
iii. French decided that they could use Israel's fear of Egyptian
aggression and the continuing blockade as a pretext for their own
strike against Nasser
iv. British decided to join in
v. the three countries agreed on a plan whereby Israel would land
paratroopers near the Canal and send its armor across the Sinai
dessert. The British and French troops would be deployed to
"protect" the canal
vi. October 29, 1956 Israel attacked Egypt eighth days before the US
presidential election
vii. more than 100,000 Israeli soldiers were mobilized in less than 72
hours and the air force was fully operational within 43.
Paratroopers landed in the Sinai and Israeli forces quickly
advanced unopposed toward the Suez Canal then halted in compliance
with the demands of England and France
viii. the Egyptians ignored the Anglo-French ultimatum to withdraw
because they were asked to retreat from the Sinai to the west
bank of the canal, whereas the Israelis were permitted to stay
only 10 miles east of the canal
ix. US sponsored a Security Resolution calling for an immediate Israeli
withdrawal on October 30
x. England and France vetoed the resolution
xi. the next day France and England launched air operations, bombing
Egyptian airfields near Suez. Israeli forces continued fighting
after this. The IDF's armored corps swept across the dessert
capturing the entire Sinai peninsula by November 5
xii. Nov. 5 British and French paratroops landed near Port Said and
amphibious ships dropped commandos onshore. British troops
captured Port Said and advanced within 25 miles of Suez city
before the British government abruptly agreed to a cease-fire
xiii. by the end of the fighting, Israel had the Gaza Strip and had
advanced as far as Sharm al-Sheikh along the Red Sea
ivx. a total of 231 Israeli soldiers died in the fighting
A. US/Kennedy
i. main source of weapons to Israel was France
ii. US encouragement of 3rd party arms suppliers that had enabled
Israel to meet its defense needs
iii. US was supplying weapons directly like recoilless rifles to
Israel, but secretly
iv. not until 1962 did Israel receive its first major weapons system
from US
a. Kennedy agreed to sell HAWK anti-aircraft missiles
b. state department opposed this but Kennedy justified this because
Nasser had been supplied long-range bombers from the Soviet
Union
c. the HAWK system required IDF soldiers to be given extensive
training in the US and that spare parts be supplied to Israel
B. Johnson
i. almost immediately after inheriting the presidency, Johnson was
pressured by Israelis and lobbyists to supply Israel with tanks and
planes
ii. 1964 Johnson Administration began to consider a tank sale, but the
Joint Chiefs of Staff reported that Israel had no need for tanks
a. they felt US should place a higher priority on restraining the
flow of weapons to the Middle East
b. Joint Chiefs of Staff said that if it was decided to sel tanks
then they should only be sold as replacements for obsolete tanks
and that they be supplied discreetly
c. this became impossible when...
iii. 1965 is was revealed that US had been indirectly supplying arms to
Israel via West Germany since 1962 under the terms of a secret
agreement made 1960
a. Arab Nations resounded to this by threatening to recognize East
Germany and by pressuring West Germany to halt sales
b. US stepped in to fulfill the remainder of the contract
iv. US policy was of even-handedness
a. it had a similar sale of tanks to Jordan
b. the administration did not supply large amounts of weapons to
either the Arabs or Israelis
c. Johnson did not want to provide one state with a military
advantage over another
v. February 1966 the US State Department announced the sale of 200
Patton Tanks to Israel
vi. then in May it announced a new agreement for Skyhawk jet bombers to
be supplied to Israel
a. first sale of offensive weapons to Israel
b. public acknowledgement that US was willing and actually providing
the weapons
A. 1963 Palestine Liberation Organization, started by the Arab League
i. the Palestine Liberation Army was established by Ahmed Shukeiri when
he was asked to wage a terror campaign
ii. the PLO has different groups like
a. Fatah - Yasir Arafat's group
b. the Marxist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
iii. 1964 during a meeting for the first Palestinian Congress the PLO
formally came into being as an effort to give a voice to the
Palestinians living in refugee camps in Lebanon
iv. Nasser had some influence over these factions
v. the key articles laid out in the Palestine National Charter or
Palestinian Covenant called for the destruction of Israel
B. Fighting
i. 1965 35 raids conducted in Israel
ii. 1966 41
iii. first 4 months of 1967 37 attacks
iv. targets of these attacks were always civilians
v. the majority of the attacks were from Palestinian guerillas entering
Israel from Jordan, the Gaza Strip, and Lebanon
a. the orders for these attacks were coming from Cairo and Damascus
b. Nasser's objective was to harass the Israelis and to undermine
King Hussein's regime in Jordan
vi. Hussein viewed the PLO as a direct and indirect threat to his power
a. he closed the PLO offices in Jerusalem in 1967 and arrested many
of the group's members
A. Syria became more hostile after the breakup of the United Arab Republic
i. the Syrian army used the Golan Heights, being 3,000 feet above the
Galilee to shell Israeli farms and villages
ii. in 1965 and 1966 Syria's attacks gew so frequent that children
living in Kibutzim in the Huleh Valley had to sleep in bomb
shelters
B. Israel repeatedly protested Syria's bombardment to the UN Mixed
Armistice Commission
i. the UN Mixed Armistice Commission was in charge of policing the
Armistice
ii. nothing was done to stop Syrian aggression
iii. Israel instead was condemned by the United Nations when it
retaliated
C. Retailiation
i. April 7, 1967 Israeli planes shot down 6 Syrian fighter planes -
these Syrian planes MiGs were supplied by the Soviet Union
ii. soon after the Soviets - who had been providing military and
economic assistance to Syria and Egypt - gave Damascus information
alleging a massive Israeli military buildup in preparation for an
attack
a. Israel denied this claim repeatedly
b. Syria decided to invoke a defense treaty with Egypt and asked
Nasser to come to its aid
D. Prewar
i. May 15, Israel's Independence Day, Egyptian troops began moving into
the Sinai and congregating near the Israeli border
ii. by May 18, Syrian troops were prepared for battle along the Golan
Heights
iii. May 16, Nasser ordered the UN Emergency Force (UNEF) that was
stationed in the Sinai since 1956 to withdraw
a. Secretary General U. Thant complied with the demand
b. Thant did not bring the matter to the attention of the General
Assembly like he was supposed to do
iv. May 22, Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran to all Israeli shipping
and all ships traveling to Eilat
a. this cut off Israel's only supply route with Asia
b. it also stopped the flow of oil from Israel's main supplier, Iran
c. President Johnson, of the US, expressed the belief that the
blockade was illegal and tried unsuccessfully to test it
d. Johnson also advised Israel not to take any military action
v. Nasser challenged Israel to fight almost daily after the blockade
vi. May 30, King Hussein of Jordan signed a defense pact with Egypt
vii. President Abdur Rahman Aref of Iraq stated "The existence of
Israel is an error which be be rectified. This is our opportunity
to wipe out the ignoming which has been with us since 1948. Our
goal is clear - to wipe Israel off the map."
viii. June 4 Iraq joined the military alliance with Egypt, Jordan, and
Syria
ix. the Arab forces mobilized comprised of ~465,000 troops
i. more than 2,800 tanks
ii. 800 aircraft circled Israel
x. right before the war Johnson warned that "Israel will not be alone
unless it decided to go alone."
xi. Israel needed the element of surprise in order to win
a. June 5, the order was given to attack Egypt